Sports Fitness Training

Caffeine is perhaps the most extensively researched endurance ergogenic aid. By stimulating the central nervous system, caffeine can enhance the release of catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) and increase the use of fatty acids for energy. Research has shown an increase in fat oxidation and free fatty acid concentrations with the use of caffeine, therefore sparing muscle glycogen. Also, plasma epinephrine concentrations have been shown to be elevated with the ingestion of caffeine. 124 A third way in which caffeine may increase performance is by decreasing an individual’s rate of perceived exertion at a given work­add. The combination of these three factors can significantly increase an individual’s endurance performance. Some studies have shown no improvements in performance with the use of caffeine, but most studies have shown positive results.As a conditionally essential amino acid, carnitine is a physiological carrier of activated longchain fatty acids. Carnitine aids in the transport of these fatty acids into the mitochondria for oxidation. It is the oxidation of fatty acids that supplies the body with energy. The use of fatty acids for energy will spare muscle glycogen. This is why carnitine has been proposed as an ergogenic aid for endurance performance. Nonetheless, studies have not been able to show an improvement in endurance performance with the use of carnitine.

As a metabolite of leucine, HMB is normally used as a muscle-building supplement. The mechanism by which HMB may influence skeletal muscle growth or enhance endurance performance is unknown. Currently, no studies have been conducted on HMB and its influence on endurance, however, one study showed no increase in creatine phosphokinase activity and a decrease in LDH activity after a prolonged run with HMB supplementation. These changes suggest that HMB may help ameliorate skeletal muscle damage after exercise. HMB may help increase performance because it can decrease muscle damage, but more studies are needed.

CoQ10 aids in the transport of electrons within the mitochondria and aids in the production of ATP Studies have shown that the ingestion CoQ10 significantly increases serum concentrations of CoQ10, nevertheless, these studies did not show any improvements in endurance performance. In fact, one study showed that the use of CoQ10 actually decreased performance, and another study by the same investigator showed that CoQ10 might cause some cell damage

Dimethylglycine (DMG) has also been touted as an endurance enhancer by increasing oxygen use and mental alertness. A couple of studies have shown improvements in performance with DMG, however, these studies were highly criticized for various reasons such as not having blinding for either the subjects or the investigators. Most of the more recent studies on DMG have not shown positive results. The basis by which DMG supposedly works has little merit.

The herbal supplement, ginseng, is widely used to enhance performance and aid in various health-related issues. Early studies conducted on ginseng and its effect on endurance in mice showed positive results. These studies showed an increase in performance time, swim time, capillary density, and mitochondrial content with ginseng supplementation. At least one human study has also shown an improvement in endurance performance with ginseng nonetheless, the bulk of human data on ginseng have not shown an improvement in endurance.

On the other hand, the use of pyruvate on endurance performance has shown some encouraging results. When pyruvate is ingested, it will apparently enhance the efficiency of the Krebs cycle, thereby producing more ATP for energy. Although many studies have been performed on pyruvate’s effect on weight loss, few have been conducted on its effectiveness in endurance performance. Two of the studies conducted on pyruvate have shown that it can aid in performance, then again, these studies used 25 g of pyruvate combined with 75 g of dihydroxyacetone. To ingest this extremely high dose, you would be consuming more capsules than the average individual would care to. Also, the most recent study on low doses of pyruvate (7 g) showed no improvement in endurance performance. Moreover, the use of pyruvate has resulted in some mild side effects including flatus and diarrhea.

Polylactate has been shown to increase blood pH, thereby allowing a greater lactic acid buildup before fatigue. The few studies that have been conducted on polylactate have not shown an increase in endurance performance. Also, individuals ingesting polylactate at a concentration greater than 2.5% had severe gastrointestinal efflux. The sparse data available do not show much hope for this supplement.

Phosphates are a blood buffer that might also increase the production of 2,3 DPG, thereby increasing the amount of oxygen delivered to skeletal muscles. The research conducted on phosphates is mixed, with slightly more data showing an increase in endurance performance with phosphates. Thus far, studies have not shown any toxic side effects of phosphates, but few studies have tested for them.

Another blood buffer, sodium bicarbonate, has also had mixed results. The data are basically split with approximately half of the studies showing an improvement in performance, while the other half showed no improvement. Also, sodium bicarbonate has been known to cause severe gastrointestinal discomfort depending on the individual.

Many studies have been conducted on the use of medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) and their effects on endurance performance. MCTs are oxidized as easily as glucose, and therefore they may have a glucose­s paring effect. Out of the numerous studies conducted on MCT, only one has shown an increase in endurance performance. Also, most of these studies have shown an increase in ketone bodies, and some gastrointestinal problems have also resulted.

Moreover, glycerol concentrations in the blood may be a reflection of an athlete’s performance. Therefore, it would be feasible that ingesting exogenous glycerol may help increase performance. Nevertheless, of the few animal and human studies conducted on glycerol and performance, none have shown an increase in performance, and some have shown a significant decrease in performance.

Finally, the most likely and frequently used supplement in endurance athletics is carbohydrates. Numerous studies support an ergogenic role of carbohydrates under the proper conditions. Carbohydrates are readily broken down into glucose and used for energy, therefore, ingestion of extra carbohydrates before and/or during exercise should increase endurance performance.

Casein represents a class of phosphoproteins (a, ß, K,y ) derived from bovine milk. Food scientists consider bovine casein as the fraction of milk that precipitates from raw milk at a pH of 4.6 and 200C. However, some whey protein may also precipitate under these same conditions, thereby contaminating the casein with lactalbumin and lactoferrin. Casein comprises 82% of the protein fraction of milk, compared to 18% for whey. Casein is commercially available primarily as sodium caseinate, potassium caseinate, and calcium caseinate and is used in the production of infant formulas, dried skim milk, and protein powders. It is considered a high-quality protein capable of increasing amino acid levels in man as well as improving protein metabolism.

Animal Studies

Studies in animals have examined the effects of casein on liver protein synthesis and fractional synthesis rates of whole-body proteins. The effects of casein and lactalbumin on radiolabeled leucine incorporation into the liver protein of Sprague-Dawley rats were compared. More Cleucine was incorporated into the liver of rats from the casein group, indicating higher rates of liver protein synthesis. Curiously, the wet weight and total protein content of the liver was lower for the casein group than the lactalbumin group. These contradictory effects were thought to result from increased liver catabolism or an increased secretion rate of liver proteins into circulation. The casein­induced increase in liver protein synthesis may be an advantage during times of infection or illness by allowing the liver to regenerate at a higher rate.

Insulin-like growth factor-1/somatomedin C (IGF-1) is a peptide hormone produced primarily by the liver. In addition, it is also a potent stimulator of protein synthesis. Male Wistar rats fed diets differing only in protein content had significantly higher levels of IGF-1 on a casein diet compared with rats fed gluten- or protein-free diets. Casein has also been shown to increase levels of IGF-1 when infused into pregnant ewes and steers and affect IGF-1 receptor levels of various tissues in rats. The casein-fed rats also had significantly greater rates of whole-body protein synthesis. These results lend some support to the previously discussed findings of James and Treloar that showed greater levels of liver protein synthesis with reduced liver weights in rats. Previous work has also shown that casein can stimulate the hepatic content of mRNA species of IGF-1 By stimulating the liver to

produce IGF-1, casein may exert an indirect effect on protein synthesis.

Casein may also affect IGF-1 levels by increasing IGF-1 absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. The survival profiles of a bolus of 1-labelled IGF-1 (8.6 ng) in vivo in various ligated gut segments of fasted adult rats was investigated. IGF-1 administered orally is rapidly proteolyzed and loses its bioactivity. However, when administered with casein, IGF-1 structural integrity and receptor binding activity in both stomach and duodenum fluids were maintained. IGF-1 uptake via endocytosis by enterocytes may allow the safe transport of unaltered IGF-1 into the blood. Casein has a slow gastric emptying rate and long gastrointestinal transit time, and therefore may allow enterocytes to endocytized IGF-1.

Casein may modulate IGF-1 levels by three separate pathways by increasing

(a) Amino acid availability and therefore modulating skeletal muscle protein synthesis and accretion through an autocrine or paracrine IGF-1 influence

(b) Absorption of IGF-1 from the GI tract

(c) Liver production of IGF_1

There are some problems with directly applying these data. The research on animals using casein infusions is based on the introduction of undegraded proteins into the GI tracts of these animals. Normally, these proteins would have undergone hydrolysis and the positive effects on IGF-1 may be lost. However, oral feeding studies on rats do demonstrate that casein can exert positive effects on IGF-1 levels. But the positive effects of casein on IGF-1 do not steadily increase. l96 Initially, casein administration increases plasma and muscle levels of IGF-1, but levels return back to baseline after 14 days. Another important point to consider is that these studies have all compared casein (an animal protein) with either a plant protein or a protein-free diet. The effects of casein on IGF-1 may also be due to the presence of additional EAAs. Future research comparing casein. whey, specific milk protein isolates, and their combinations is needed to elucidate the specific mechanisms involved. The presence of other bioactive fractions in casein may also indicate that either the individual fractions themselves or some combination mediate the indirect effects of casein on protein synthesis.

Human Studies

The effects of amino acid mixtures simulating casein and hydrolysates of casein on absorption after oral or jejunal administration. This work supports similar work done on whey protein, indicating that hydrolysates are absorbed better than their amino acid counterparts. Additional work examined the effects of casein on postprandial amino acid responses and on insulin and glucagon. The most recent research on casein focused on the delayed gastric emptying time and impact on protein synthesis

Research on healthy men and women agrees with research on animals that casein has a slow gastric emptying time. This delay results in elevated plasma amino acid concentrations up to 300 minutes postingestion. The significance of this effect is exemplified by marked differences in protein metabolism compared with whey. Casein protein ingestion results in a slight increase in protein synthesis, moderate increase in protein oxidation, and large decrease in protein breakdown. This profile results in a more positive protein balance compared with whey. This effect may be lost if casein oligopeptides are given in place of whole casein protein.

Safety and Toxicity

Casein, like any protein, has the potential to induce allergic reactions in some individuals. This is more of a concern for infants receiving formulas than adults. A more practical concern for adults is the potential hypercholesterolemic effects of casein and data from animal studies on the potential carcinogenic effects of cooked or heated casein So, individuals with hypercholesterolemia or those consuming high saturated fat diets should use casein products cautiously. Long­term research demonstrates similar side effects in rats fed semipurified diets containing either casein or soy proteins.

However, a recent study demonstrated that a casein protein diet produced a dramatic drop in Lp(a) levels, thus potentially decreasing cardiovascular risk. Also, if casein has deleterious effects on blood lipids and tumor formation, then one would speculate that heavy milk drinkers would suffer from a malady of health problems. Clearly, this is not the case.

No evidence based on properly conducted, rigorous scientific study suggests that the use of amino acid supplements in conjunction with strength-training increases muscle growth or lean body mass to a greater extent than strength training alone. Two studies that reported greater increases in body mass and reduction in percent body fat, and gains in total body strength, lean body mass, and reduced urinary hydroxyproline excretion as a result of arginine and ornithine supplementation were seriously flawed. In these studies, untrained adult males (mean ages, 38.3 and 37.2 yrs, respectively) trained 3 days per week for 5 weeks. Body composition was assessed using skinfolds and body girths, but not hydrostatic weighing. Subjects in the experimental groups ingested 500 mg each of arginine and ornithine twice daily. In the first study, the statistical procedure used in data analysis was reported as an analysis of variance (ANOVA) using a 2 X 3 factorial design. However, data in the paper were given as absolute change for body mass, percent body fat, and body girths. It appears that each of the dependent variables measured was used within the same ANOVA, thus the “3″ in the 2 X 3 statistical analysis. This is clearly an inappropriate statistical analysis. Furthermore, t-tests of the data shown in the paper show no difference for body mass, percent body fat, and the sum of body girth measurements between placebo and amino acid-supplemented groups. In the second study, only the data collected after 5 weeks of training were used in the analysis. The authors reported using a two-way ANOVA with group (amino acid or placebo) and the dependent variables (strength, lean body mass, hydroxyproline excretion) used in the analysis. Again, this is an incorrect statistical procedure. Although it was suggested that the effects of amino acid supplementation could have been due to the effects of arginine and ornithine on GH, the conclusion is not supported by the data. Again, there are no properly designed studies demonstrating greater gains in strength or lean body mass in individuals using specific amino acids as GH secretagogues in conjunction with strength training.

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Numerous mechanisms have been proposed by which phosphates increase endurance performance. Phosphates may increase extra- and intracellular levels of phosphate, thereby increasing the amount of phosphate available for oxidative phosphorylation and phosphocreatine synthesis. Phosphates are also thought to increase the production of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) in red blood cells (RBCs). 2,3-DPG aids the release of oxygen from hemoglobin on RBCs. The increase in 2,3-DPG concentrations shifts the oxygen-hemoglobin curve to the right, allowing for more oxygen to be delivered to skeletal muscles.The final proposed mechanism of action for phosphates is the notion that phosphates are buffers, which supposedly decreases the accumulation of hydrogen ions that can inhibit glycolysis. This may ultimately lead to a decrease in energy production. This may also decrease force production by impairing the cross-bridge formation between myofilaments.

Human Studies

Duffy and Conlee had 11 male subjects ingest 1.24 g of sodium acid phosphate and potassium phosphate 1 hour before exercise (acute) and 3.73 g/day of the phosphate combination for 6 days before exercise (chronic). Tread­mill endurance time, after 15 minutes of recovery from the first exercise, and oxygen uptake during the treadmill exercise, were measured. Running times ranged from 172­183 seconds during the first run and 145-152 seconds during the second run. Oxygen uptake averaged 52 mL/ kg/min during all conditions. The results showed no significant effect of acute or chronic ingestion of a combination of phosphates.

Bredle et al. conducted a double-blind, crossover experiment with 11 male runners. The subjects ingested 176 mmol/day of calcium phosphate or a placebo for 4 days. On day 3, subjects performed an incremental VO2max test on a treadmill, and on day 4, subjects ran on the treadmill at 70% VO2max until exhaustion. On day 4, plasma phosphate levels were significantly higher than in controls, but erythrocyte phosphate, 2,3-DPG, and oxygen half-saturation pressure of hemoglobin were unchanged. Also, neither VO2max nor sub maximal run time to exhaustion was changed by the treatment.

Treatment with phosphate increased the arteriovenous oxygen difference. The authors concluded that phosphates improve some cardiovascular functions, but do not have an effect on aerobic power.

Thirty endurance-trained males were studied for 364 days. Ten control subjects exercised 14.4 km/day at 10,000 steps/day. The other 20 subjects exercised less than 2.9 km/day (3000 walking steps/day) with half of them consuming phosphate, fluid, and salt. The results showed that hyperhydration and phosphate supplementation could minimize phosphate loss in endurance-trained subjects during periods of low exercise routines.

Conversely, when ten well-trained distance runners were given a phosphate load or a placebo for 3 days, the results were different. Pre- and post-measures included plasma phosphate concentration, RBC 2,3-DPG, hematocrit and hemoglobin concentrations, and degree of lactic acidemia. Blood samples for the control condition were drawn before and after a warm-up, after treadmill exercise at a 10% grade, and after the completion of the VO2max determination. Serum phosphate and RBC 2,3-DPG levels were significantly increased after the ingestion of phosphate. Also, VO2max was significantly increased and correlated with the rise in RBC 2,3-DPG .

Next, eight trained cyclists participated in three cycle ergometer tests after consuming phosphate, placebo, or no supplement. time to exhaustion, serum 2,3­DPG, and serum phosphate levels were measured before and after treatment. Serum phosphate levels did not change in any group, but there were increases in 2,3-DPG during phosphate supplementation. There was also a significant difference and time to exhaustion .

Moreover, Krieder et al. had seven male competitive runners participate in a two­session, placebo-controlled, double-blind study on phosphate loading. Oxygen uptake, ventilatory anaerobic thresh-old, and 5-mile performance were randomly tested on day 3 or day 6 after supplementation with tribasic sodium phosphate four times per day for 6 days. Phosphate loading significantly increased resting and post-exercise serum phosphate concentrations and also significantly increased maximum oxygen uptake (4.77-5.18 L/min) and ventilatory anaerobic threshold . Five-mile run times were different between sessions, but not significantly; however, mean performance run oxygen uptake was significantly lower with the ingestion of phosphate.

Two years later, Kreider et al had six male cyclists and triathletes consume 1 g of tribasic sodium phosphate or a glucose placebo four times per day for 3 days before exercise. The exercise consisted of an incremental maximal cycling test or a simulated 40-km time trial on a computerized race simulator. The subjects continued supplementation for 1 extra day, and performed the same exercise again. Metabolic data were collected during 15-second intervals and venous blood samples were collected during each stage of the cycling test and every 8 km during the run. The results showed that the phosphates increased anaerobic threshold, myocardial ejection fraction and fractional shortening, VO2max (69.3 versus 75.4 mL/kg/min for placebo and phosphate groups, respectively).

A fair amount of data have been collected on the use of phosphates as an endurance enhancer. With proposed mechanisms such as increasing oxidative phosphorylation, phosphocreatine synthesis, 2,3-DPG production, and also decreasing blood pH, it would seem plausible that phosphates would increase endurance performance. Currently, the data are mixed, with some studies showing an improvement in endurance performance and others showing no improvement. Phosphates do seem to have some potential as an ergogenic aid, but more studies are needed to prove this.

It sometimes so happens that some people who are taking the protein supplements and working out daily in regular and as planned will not be seeing any results. Though there are some results then it is not in the way it really had to be then the problem is that they are not taking in the required quantity. Protein shakes at that moment need to be taken in more quantity and will not be able to reach the loss of energy faced during the workout. Ensure the amount of protein shake to be taken for the workout you do.

Green drinks are a sudden cure for maintaining the balance in the stomach when you are upset. For such problems there are specific green drinks that you need to take. Green drink so specifically chosen should be taken before going to bed with water or as specified. The next morning you will be normal and fine after you have an easy bowel movement and the stomach is cleanly flushed.

There are many benefits of taking whey proteins and just will have a glimpse of them. Athletes require as they need proteins in double amount. It has some specific bioactive elements that reduce the cholesterol level and risk of heart problem is reduced. It stabilizes the blood glucose level and helps in stabilizing the weight helping in weight management. It is easily available protein to the body as it is high in protein and is easily absorbed. They also maintain the muscle strength helping in healthy ageing.