Sports Fitness Training

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In ergogenic aids and doping one must consider the tests and the testing procedures themselves. Science is based on probabilities, not absolutes. There is always a degree of error in the tests and testing procedures. Consider the following. Because there is always a degree of error, this means that there will always be false positives and false negatives. However, the IOC and its subsidiaries have released little or no data on its testing procedures dealing with athletes. Most of the published data on testing, particularly with anabolic steroids, have been carried out with small numbers of untrained non athletes. Thus, the exact degree of error is unknown. For the sake of argument, assume that the chance of a false positive is 0.0015%. This seems quite small; however, if 10,000 athletes were to be tested in a year, one might expect as many as 15 false­positive tests. In reality this means that, potentially; 15 athletes will be wrongly accused of violating the rules governing their sport. Furthermore, as of 1996 the degree of agreement among six IOC laboratories was not acceptable . Thus, the degree of error is not consistent between laboratories and the chance of a false positive may be greater in some laboratories. This clearly may exacerbate the problem.Certain drugs such as cocaine are not found naturally occurring in humans. Thus, detection of these substances is relatively easy. Many hormones, when used as ergogenic aids, are quite difficult to detect (e.g. growth hormone). Also, certain androgens have been recently shown to occur naturally (i.e., nandrolone); thus, cutoff limits for drug testing must be established.

Several problems arise from the testing of androgens. First consider testosterone (T). Because T is produced in relatively large amounts naturally, simply finding an amount that is somewhat over the average limits cannot be considered positive. Currently the test for the use of exogenous testosterone is the testosterone:epitestosterone ratio. In normal untrained adult humans the ratio of production is approximately 1:1. This ratio may be disturbed slightly by alcohol ingestion (especially in women), aging , physical activity, sexual activity, etc. The established ratio for testing positive is 6:1. The use of this ratio in drug testing is greatly complicated because there is evidence that at least 1 in 2000 (0.0005%) men are deficient in the enzyme(s) necessary for the production of epitestosterone this would suggest that their T:E ratio will be higher than 6:1. The likelihood of finding athletes with high T:E ratios is illustrated by the Swedish anti-doping program. As reported in 1996, 28 out of 8946 samples (0.3%) produced T:E ratios higher than 6; however, only one of these 28 samples was conclusively considered to be the result of exogenous testosterone use . This study not only points out the difficulty of determining whether exogenous testosterone was used, but also suggests that the actual incidence of naturally occurring high T:E ratios may be as high as 0.3% in athletes. Detection of exogenous testosterone use can be further complicated if the athlete simultaneously uses exogenous epitestosterone . Because it is difficult to determine the difference between natural and synthetic T using the T:E ratio, alternate or additional methods are being considered such as using a testosterone luteinizing hormone ratio. Another alternative is the use of carbon isotope ratios. Differences in the ratio of carbon isotopes are used to construct T synthetically and the ratio found in naturally occurring T. However, the isotope ratio method of determining these differences is not any more accurate than using the T:E ratio at present. Furthermore, the carbon isotope ratio (C12:C13) may be affected by diet .

Recently, the sporting world has been shocked by the number of positive doping tests for nandrolone. Included in these positive tests are several superstars of track and field including Linford Christie and Merlene Ottey. Nandrolone is typically injected in an oil base and is the primary anabolic agent, which has been avoided by athletes subject to drug tests because it is easily detected even months after injection . It has only been within the last 2-3 years that nandrolone has been shown conclusively to be a naturally occurring steroid and the IOC has adopted a doping positive cutoff of 2 ng/mL. It is interesting that many of the positive tests produced concentrations of only 8­12 ng/mL. This suggests several possibilities. First, the tests are becoming more sensitive (i.e., the IOC position) and the athletes were taking a banned substance. Second, the test doesn’t work and is showing false positives (i.e., the position of some athletes, coaches, and scientists). Third, the athletes were taking (legally purchased) over-the-counter food supplements that contained a substance which produces nandrolone or its metabolites unknown to them (i.e., the position of some athletes, coaches, and scientists). The stature and number of athletes being tested positive have raised questions about the validity of the tests, questions that have reached national government levels. To date (August 1999), the IOC has released little information on the testing program, which would allow independent verification of its testing procedures . Certainly, with the potential problems seen with drug testing (i.e., false positives), it is not difficult to legally challenge the veracity of such tests.

Tags:anabolic steroids, androgens, athletes, drug testing, ergogenic aids, exogenous, false negatives, false positive, growth hormone, nandrolone, Sports Controversies, testosterone Uncategorized

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One of the characteristics of competitive sport that distinguishes it from other forms of physical activity is the importance of winning. Indeed, in many countries 2nd place is referred to as the first loser. In this context an athlete purposefully chooses to strive for performance excellence. It is likely that a large part of the emphasis on winning and excellence of performance stems from an intrinsic motivating factor (i.e., some people simply hate to lose). Other extrinsic factors can also play a major role. For example, sports fans prefer and even expect their teams to be winners regardless of the competitive level. Some countries, both past and present, have used sport as a political tool often to the detriment of sport (e.g., Soviet Union’s boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles). Because of these factors even amateur sport with its myriad of governing bodies has become a big business with high stakes for those involved. Thus, because of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors it is incumbent upon the athlete to be a winner.

Hypocrisy Regarding Drug Testing

The International Olympic Committee’s policy on doping has been instituted partly to protect the athlete’s health, however, high-level athletic competition is often an inherently unhealthy endeavor. If health is a factor then why are certain sports with high injury rates or the potential for serious injury allowed at all? For example, many linemen playing American football weigh over 135 kg. These higher body weights are necessary to be successful at this sport; however, gaining large amounts of weight is unhealthy.

False Positives

Certain drugs such as cocaine are not found naturally occurring in humans. Thus, detection of these substances is relatively easy. Many hormones, when used as ergogenic aids, are quite difficult to detect (e.g., growth hormone). Also, certain androgens have been recently shown to occur naturally (i.e., nandrolone); thus, cutoff limits for drug testing must be established.

Flawed Process?

In the process of drug testing, two samples of urine are collected and stored. If a positive test occurs for sample A, the NGB and the athlete are notified. The athlete or their representative can observe sample B being tested. If both samples are positive, the test results are subsequently made public. The athlete has a right to arbitration (i.e., a trial). In many sports there are two trials. First is the trial within the athletes’ governing body and then there can be a trial within the international body. This system then places the athlete and their NGB in adversarial roles. For example, in track and field the International Athletics Federation (IAAF) is the international governing body. First the athlete must go through arbitration within their NGB (UK Athletics or USA Track and Field, for example). The results of this trial are then forwarded to the IAAF Rarely, if ever, does the lAAF accept an NGB arbitration verdict that the athlete was innocent of doping (e.g., Dennis Mitchell and Dougie Walker). The stated position of the lAAF is that the athlete is guilty until proven innocent and that it does not matter how the substance got there (Athlete guilty until proven innocent Doug Gillon, August 20, 1999, The Electronic Herald). Thus, the second trial begins with the IAAF Rarely, if ever, do the athletes prove themselves not guilty to the lAAF (e.g., Dennis Mitchell and Dougie Walker). A number of reasons can be given for a false positive including individual differences in metabolism, taking a legal supplement that contains a banned (or the building blocks) substance, and sabotage (e.g., Tonya Harding). None of these reasons are sufficient in the eyes of the IOC/IAAF.

What is unfortunate is that after the myriad of legal maneuvers, the athlete’s reputation can be damaged and a considerable amount of time, money, and effort are spent. The athlete (e.g., Diane Modahl) might win the lawsuit and then the NGB loses a great deal of money; however, the lAAF and IOC have so far been protected. Even when a national court finds in favor of an athlete (e.g., Butch Reynolds) the IOC/IAAF, etc. may not meet their obligations openly or fairly.

Facts

There are clearly problems with doping tests. Pointing out these problems is not a blanket indictment of doping control but rather an attempt to identify deficienciesThere is little doubt that ergogenic aids will continue to be used, as will banned substances until adequate testing methods can be devised. Perhaps the vast majority of athletes would not use banned substances if they believed that the playing field was level. Certainly, the current testing methods do not work well. Consider the following:

1. The IOC testing procedures should be reviewed by independent agencies. The IOC should release data on athletic testing (especially for nandrolone) to independent agencies for evaluation and validation.
2. Until adequate tests can be devised for testosterone, it should be removed from the banned list.
3. An independent agency should take over doping control that will remove suspicion from the athletic governing bodies and eliminate the current adversarial role of the national and international governing bodies.

Tags:amateur sport, androgens, athlete, athletic competition, body weights, drug testing, ergogenic aids, false positives, nandrolone Sports Controversies

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